What Is P-Value?
A p-value is a measure of the probability that an observed difference could have occurred just by random chance.
The lower the p-value, the greater the statistical significance of the observed difference. The P-value can serve as an alternative to or in addition to preselected confidence levels for hypothesis testing. P value calculator by calculator-online.net is an efficient way to identify all the variables and their
significance.
In statistics, the p-value is the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as the observed results of a statistical hypothesis test, assuming that the null hypothesis is correct.
The p-value serves as an alternative to rejection points to provide the smallest level of significance at which the null hypothesis would be rejected. A smaller p-value means that there is stronger evidence in favor of the alternative hypothesis.
How Is P-Value Calculated?
P-values are usually found using p-value tables or spreadsheets/statistical software. These calculations are based on the assumed or known probability distribution of the specific statistic tested.
P-values are calculated from the deviation between the observed value and a chosen reference value, given the probability distribution of the statistic, with a greater difference between the two values corresponding to a lower p-value.
Mathematically, the p-value is calculated using integral calculus from the area under the probability distribution curve for all values of statistics that are at least as far from the reference value as the observed value is, relative to the total area under the probability distribution curve.
The calculation for a p-value varies based on the type of test performed. The three test types describe the location on the probability distribution curve: lower-tailed test, upper-tailed test, or two-sided test.
In a nutshell, the greater the difference between two observed values, the less likely it is that the difference is due to simple random chance, and this is reflected by a lower p-value.
The P-Value Approach to Hypothesis Testing
For the p-value approach, the likelihood (p-value) of the numerical value of the test statistic is compared to the specified significance level (α) of the hypothesis test.
The p-value corresponds to the probability of observing sample data at least as extreme as the actually obtained test statistic. Small p-values provide evidence against the null hypothesis. The smaller (closer to 0) the p-value, the stronger is the evidence against the null hypothesis.
If the p-value is less than or equal to the specified significance level α, the null hypothesis is rejected; otherwise, the null hypothesis is not rejected. In other words, if p≤α, reject H0; otherwise, if p>α do not reject H0.
In consequence, by knowing the p-value any desired level of significance may be assessed. For example, if the p-value of a hypothesis test is 0.01, the null hypothesis can be rejected at any significance level larger than or equal to 0.01. It is not rejected at any significance level smaller than 0.01.
Thus, the p-value is commonly used to evaluate the strength of the evidence against the null hypothesis without reference to the significance level.
The following table provides guidelines for using the p-value to assess the evidence against the null hypothesis.
| p-value | Evidence against H0 |
| p>0.10 | Weak or no evidence |
| 0.05<p≤0.10 | Moderate evidence |
| 0.01<p≤0.05 | Strong evidence |
| p≤0.01 | Very strong evidence |
P-values and statistical significance
P-values are most often used by researchers to say whether a certain pattern they have measured is statistically significant.
Statistical significance is another way of saying that the p-value of a statistical test is small enough to reject the null hypothesis of the test.
How small is small enough? The most common threshold is p < 0.05; that is, when you would expect to find a test statistic as extreme as the one calculated by your test only 5% of the time. But the threshold depends on your field of study – some fields prefer thresholds of 0.01, or even 0.001.
The threshold value for determining statistical significance is also known as the alpha value.
Example: Statistical significance
Your comparison of the two mouse diets results in a p-value of less than 0.01, below your alpha value of 0.05; therefore you determine that there is a statistically significant difference between the two diets.
Reporting p-values
P-values of statistical tests are usually reported in the results section of a research paper, along with the key information needed for readers to put the p-values in context – for example, correlation coefficient in a linear regression, or the average difference between treatment groups in a t-test.
Example: Reporting the results
In our comparison of mouse diet A and mouse diet B, we found that the lifespan on diet A (mean = 2.1 years; sd = 0.12) was significantly shorter than the lifespan on diet B (mean = 2.6 years; sd = 0.1), with an average difference of 6 months (t(80) = -12.75; p < 0.01).
Caution when using p-values
P-values are often interpreted as your risk of rejecting the null hypothesis of your test when the null hypothesis is actually true.
In reality, the risk of rejecting the null hypothesis is often higher than the p-value, especially when looking at a single study or when using small sample sizes. This is because the smaller your frame of reference, the greater the chance that you stumble across a statistically significant pattern completely by accident.
P-values are also often interpreted as supporting or refuting the alternative hypothesis. This is not the case. The p-value can only tell you whether or not the null hypothesis is supported. It cannot tell you whether your alternative hypothesis is true, or why.
FAQs
Is the p-value of 0.05 Significant?
A statistically significant test result (P ≤ 0.05) means that the test hypothesis is false or should be rejected. A P value greater than 0.05 means that no effect was observed.
A p-value less than 0.05 (typically ≤ 0.05) is statistically significant. It indicates strong evidence against the null hypothesis, as there is less than a 5% probability the null is correct (and the results are random). Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
However, if the p-value is below your threshold of significance (typically p < 0.05), you can reject the null hypothesis, but this does not mean that there is a 95% probability that the alternative hypothesis is true.
The p-value is conditional upon the null hypothesis being true but is unrelated to the truth or falsity of the alternative hypothesis.
What does a high p-value mean?
High p-values indicate that your evidence is not strong enough to suggest an effect exists in the population. An effect might exist but it’s possible that the effect size is too small, the sample size is too small, or there is too much variability for the hypothesis test to detect it.
While you might not like obtaining results that are not statistically significant, these results can stop you from jumping to conclusions and making decisions based on random noise in your data! High p-values help prevent costly mistakes.
After all, if you base decisions on random error, you won’t gain the benefits you expect. This protection against jumping to conclusions applies to studies about teaching methods, medication effectiveness, product strength, and so on.
High p-values can be a valuable caution against making rash decisions or drawing conclusions based on differences that look important but might be a random error!
Is 0.07 statistically significant?
a certain trend toward significance (p=0.08) approached the borderline of significance (p=0.07) at the margin of statistical significance (p<0.07) close to being statistically significant (p=0.055) Dec 3, 2015
How do you calculate p-value example?
Explanation of the P-Value Formula Since the normal distribution is symmetric, negative values of z are equal to its positive values. 2.81 is a sum of 2.80 and 0.01. Look at 2.8 in the z column and the corresponding value of 0.01. We get p = 0.0025.
What is p-value for dummies?
The p-value is a number between 0 and 1 and interpreted in the following way: A small p-value (typically 0.05) indicates strong evidence against the null hypothesis, so you reject the null hypothesis. Jul 6, 2021
Is p 0.01 statistically significant?
For example, a p-value that is more than 0.05 is considered statistically significant while a figure that is less than 0.01 is viewed as highly statistically significant.
Is p-value of 0.1 significant?
The smaller the p-value, the stronger the evidence for rejecting the H0. This leads to the guidelines of p < 0.001 indicating very strong evidence against H0, p < 0.01 strong evidence, p < 0.05 moderate evidence, p < 0.1 weak evidence or a trend, and p ? 0.1 indicating insufficient evidence[1].
Is 0.2 statistically significant?
If the p-value comes in at 0.03 the result is also statistically significant, and you should adopt the new campaign. If the p-value comes in at 0.2 the result is not statistically significant, but since the boost is so large you’ll likely still proceed, though perhaps with a bit more caution. Feb 16, 2016
What does p 05 mean?
statistical-significance In most sciences results yield a p-value of 0.05 are considered on the borderline of statistical significance. If the p-value is under 0.01, results are considered statistically significant, and if it’s below. 005 they are considered highly statistically significant.
How do you calculate p-value from standard error?
(a) P from CI for a difference
- If the upper and lower limits of a 95% CI are u and l respectively:
- 1 calculate the standard error: SE = (u − l)/(2×1.96)
- 2 calculate the test statistic: z = Est/SE
- 3 calculate the P value: P = exp(−0.717×z − 0.416×z2).
(b) P from CI for a ratio
For a ratio measure, such as a risk ratio, the above formulas should be used with the estimate Est and the confidence limits on the log scale (eg, the log risk ratio and its CI).
Notes
- All P values are two sided.
- All logarithms are natural (ie, to base e).
- “exp” is the exponential function.
- The formula for P works only for positive z, so if z is negative we remove the minus sign.
- For a 90% CI, we replace 1.96 by 1.65; for a 99% CI we use 2.57.
Is the p-value the same as the Z score?
The P-Value is calculated by converting your statistic (such as mean/average) into a Z-Score. Using that z-score, look up that value in a standard normal table. If that value is above your desired confidence level, you can reject your null hypothesis and accept your alternative hypothesis. Dec 21, 2013
How do you find the p-value from the percentage?
Is ap value of 0.003 significant?
The p-value of 0.003 is statistically significant.
What is p value example?
P values are expressed as decimals although it may be easier to understand what they are if you convert them to a percentage. For example, a p-value of 0.0254 is 2.54%. This means there is a 2.54% chance your results could be random (i.e. happened by chance).
Can the p-value be greater than 1?
As the answer explains, P-values are probabilities and so cannot exceed 1, so whatever argument you had in mind was fallacious.
What is a 1% significance level?
The significance level is the Type I error rate. So, a lower significance level (e.g., 1%) has, by definition, a lower Type I error rate. And, yes, it is possible to reject at one level, say 5%, and not reject at a lower level (1%).
How do you find the p-value?
If your test statistic is positive, first find the probability that Z is greater than your test statistic (look up your test statistic on the Z-table, find its corresponding probability, and subtract it from one). Then double this result to get the p-value.
Is 0.06 statistically significant?
A p-value of 0.06 means that there is a probability of 6% of obtaining that result by chance when the treatment has no real effect. Because we set the significance level at 5%, the null hypothesis should not be rejected.
How do you calculate the p-value by hand?
Example: Calculating the p-value from a t-test by hand
- Step 1: State the null and alternative hypotheses.
- Step 2: Find the test statistic.
- Step 3: Find the p-value for the test statistic. To find the p-value by hand, we need to use the t-Distribution table with n-1 degrees of freedom. …
- Step 4: Draw a conclusion.
What is the p-value of Z?
What is the p-value of the Z score?
For a one-sided Z-test,
- if |z|=1.282 or more,
- p<0.10; if |z|=1.645 or more,
- p<0.05; if |z|=2.327 or more,
- p<0.01; if |z|=3.091 or more,
- p<0.001.
For a two-sided Z-test,
- if |z|=1.645 or more,
- p<0.10; if |z|=1.960 or more,
- p<0.05; if |z|=2.576 or more,
- p<0.01; if |z|=3.291 or more,
- p<0.001.
Is a low p-value good?
The p-value is the probability that the null hypothesis is true. (1 the p-value) is the probability that the alternative hypothesis is true. A low p-value shows that the results are replicable. A low p-value shows that the effect is large or that the result is of major theoretical, clinical, or practical importance.
Is 0.08 statistically significant?
The numerical result of 0.08 shows a non-significant test.
What does p-value of 0.03 mean?
3% The p-value of 0.03 means that there’s 3% (probability in percentage) that the result is due to chance which is not true.
Is 0.02 statistically significant?
Let us consider that the appropriate statistical test is applied and the P-value obtained is 0.02. Conventionally, the P-value for statistical significance is defined as P < 0.05. In the above example, the threshold is breached and the null hypothesis is rejected.
What is p-value in statistics?
In statistics, the p-value is the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as the observed results of a statistical hypothesis test, assuming that the null hypothesis is correct.
Can you calculate p-value in Excel?
How do you find p-value from test statistic?
How to calculate p-value from test statistic? Left-tailed test: p-value = cdf(x) Right-tailed test: p-value = 1 – cdf(x) Two-tailed test: p-value = 2 * min{cdf(x) , 1 – cdf(x)}
How do you find p-value from Z on TI 84?
The p-value would be P(z <-2.01) or the area under the standard normal curve to the left of z = -2.01. Notice that the p-value is . 0222. We can find this value using the Normalcdf feature of the calculator found by pressing [2nd] [VARS] as noted above.
How do you find az score on a TI 84?
What does rejecting the null hypothesis mean?
After performing a test, scientists can: Reject the null hypothesis (meaning there is a definite, consequential relationship between the two phenomena), or. Fail to reject the null hypothesis (meaning the test has not identified a consequential relationship between the two phenomena)
What is a good p-value in research?
Although it is certain that P-value is a very useful method to summarize the study results, it is undeniable that P values are misused and misunderstood in many cases; we can observe that many authors or readers consider P values of 0.05 as the ‘gold standard of ‘significance’; a P > 0.05 is considered to be of ‘no …
What does a p-value of 0.006 mean?
If the P-value is less than the level of significance, meaning the probability of observing the event is sufficiently small, then there is strong evidence to reject the null hypothesis: it is unlikely for the event to have occurred under the assumption that the null hypothesis was true.
Is 0.006 statistically significant?
The p-value of 0.006 means that an ARR of 19.6% or more would occur in only 6 in 1000 trials if streptomycin was equally as effective as bed rest. Since the p-value is less than 0.05, the results are statistically significant (ie, it is unlikely that streptomycin is ineffective in preventing death).
